Before we study what is called thinking, there is a need to distinguish between the concepts of think, thinking, and thought:

1. Think- the verb “think” is a dynamic word. It is used in a variety of ways. Think about (consider) the following conversations:

A: What do you think (ask opinion) about constructivism?
B: I think (believe) students construct knowledge based on previous experiences, they
think (reminisce, recall) about their experiences if the instructor provides relevant
resources that students can think (remember) of.
A: Yes, you are right, we should think (reflect, ponder, reason, deliberate) carefully
before deciding what to include in curriculum.
Obviously, “think” is used to represent attitudes, beliefs, and memory processes (Nickerson, Perkins, and Smith, 1985).

1. Thinking- the verb “thinking” is more complex. Mayer (1991) uses “thinking”, “problem solving” and “cognition” interchangeably. According to Mayer, the general definition of thinking should include three basic ideas (Mayer, 1991, p. 7):
2. Thinking is cognitive, but is inferred from behavior. It occurs internally, in the mind or cognitive system, and must be inferred indirectly.
3. Thinking is a process that involves some manipulation of or set of operations on knowledge in the cognitive system.
4. Thinking is directed and results in behavior that solves a problem or is directed toward solution.

Accordingly, thinking is a process that directs a person moving from the given problem state to the solved goal state.

1. “Thought” has many definitions. According to The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (1969):“thought” is:  a) the act or process of thinking; cognition; b) a product of thinking; idea.  Since thought is seen as a product of thinking, it heavily relies on language to make one’s thoughts clear to others. People differ from other animals in having language, that means, “We can think in language.” (Harman, 1973, p. vii). Of course, not all thought is in words, but without language, how knowledge is being constructed in the classroom would be hard to assess. (Goldman, Duschl, Ellenbogen, Williams, and Tsou, 2003).

In essence, thinking relies heavily on words and verbal or nonverbal language. Tishman and Perkins (1997, p. 369 ) propose that the “language of thinking” in which English vocabularies that describe thinking were categorized into terms with different function: epistemic stance that indicate a stance or attitude toward a claim of knowledge; intellectual-process terms that discriminate ways of thinking; and intellectual-product terms that name and make differences among kinds of ideas. See the following table for examples in each category:

Thinking can be shaped by language, by thinking about thinking and by interaction with others. Probably many people would argue that thinking is not intelligence. If we agree that intelligence is the ability to classify patterns, the ability to learn, the ability to reason, the ability to develop and use conceptual models and the ability to understand (Nickerson, Perkins, Smith, 1985, pp. 9-14); then, there must be some relationship between thinking and intelligence. Although intelligent people are not necessary good thinkers, and very common, even intelligent people do not think very well. Perkins (1986) puts forward that people tend to:

1. take biased reasoning approach rather than explore the other side of the issue;
2. solve the problem before carefully examining the nature of the problem; and
3. view knowledge as information rather than knowledge as invention.

 
To overcome these tendencies, Perkins recommends using “thinking frames” as a guide to redirect thinking into better patterns. A thinking frame is “…a representation intended to guide the process of thought, supporting, organizing, and catalyzing that process” (p. 7). Thinking frames are divided into two types: (1) thinking processes such as self-reasoning or concept mapping; and (2) thinking products such as critical thinking or metacognition that guide, examine, and evaluate one’s own thoughts and ideas.
In more recent years, one of the research projects investigated at Harvard Graduate School of Education’s Project Zero is the “Patterns of Thinking”.  With this project Perkins continues his research on teaching thinking skills. In particular, Perkins and his colleagues have investigated several thinking dispositions that support high-level thinking. Thinking disposition is a tendency toward pattern of intellectual behavior. Three components are necessary for dispositional behavior: ability, inclination and sensitivity. Ability carries out behavior, inclination motivates behavior, and sensitivity opens the mind’s window for new ideas. Good thinkers have abilities, they also have thinking dispositions such as passions, attitudes, values, and habits of mind that determine the use of ability to solve problems.

What the researchers have suggested here is that thinking is a skill that can be taught and learned. In learning communities, whether classrooms or online environments, teachers may establish the culture of thinking in which students are exploring concepts and ideas, making connections and cultivating dispositions through social and/or virtual interactions. Learning is situated, just the same as thinking. It is essential for educators to build a strong culture of learning communities that make thinking visible to both teachers and learners.